Ainu History
A brief overview of the history of Ainu peoples.
Origins of Ainu Culture
A recognizable Ainu culture first developed around 1200 CE, though they have inhabited the Japanese archipelago for thousands of years. Their culture likely emerged from a blend of island peoples like the Satsumon, Okhotsk, and Jomon. The Jomon were the ancient people of Japan, ancestors to both the Ainu and modern Yamato Japanese. They are known for their ornate pottery and occupied the Japanese archipelago from about 14,500 to 300 BCE. More recent cultures like the Okhotsk entered the region from the north. Traces of Okhotsk culture are now more apparent among the Nivkh and Amur people. The Satsumon people, meanwhile, absorbed and repelled the Okhotsk over several centuries. They brought agriculture and increased trade to the island and appear to be the most direct ancestors of the Ainu.
Early Ainu History
Ainu culture itself formed in response to increasing trade with China, Japan, and others. Rather than producing their own pottery, the early Ainu began trading for more advanced ceramics and ironware. They are noted in foreign histories as both traders and warriors. On Sakhalin, for example, four decades of war with the Nivkh and China’s Mongol Yuan dynasty ended with eventual defeat in 1308. At this time, Hokkaido belonged entirely to the Ainu and was called Ezo or Yezo by outsiders.
Japanese Colonialism on Hokkaido
The Matsumae clan of Japan led early efforts to control Ezo, establishing forts and trade outposts along its coast. The Matsumae were granted a trade monopoly with Ezo, which possessed vast natural reserves and wealth. What began as a mutually beneficial relationship gradually devolved into exploitation. The Matsumae and later merchants needed the Ainu to gather valuable natural resources. Like other colonizing forces around the world, they encouraged compliance through the use of alcohol as a trade currency. This practice eroded Ainu societies from within and increased their dependence on external trade goods. Diseases like smallpox also took their toll on indigenous populations. Later, mining and fishing developed as major industries on Hokkaido, often employing Ainu people for low wages.
The Ainu mounted several resistance movements in response to their gradual loss of land and freedom. In 1457, an Ainu chieftain named Koshamain led attacks on a dozen Japanese forts. Another major rebellion, Shakushain’s Revolt, took place between 1669 and 1672. Shakushain’s defeat marked the last major conflict between the Ainu and Japanese.
The Ainu and the Meiji Restoration
In the 19th century, Japan’s Meiji Restoration sought to unify the Empire and its citizens under a strong central authority. The remaining Ainu, already devastated by disease and poverty, were expected to intermarry and conform to Japanese norms. Their traditional fishing, hunting, languages, and worship were banned. Many Ainu children grew up learning Japanese history and languages instead of their own. After the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, the remaining Ainu communities of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands were forcibly moved to Hokkaido.
Modern Ainu People
Despite these assimilation efforts, the Ainu have remained a distinct and living culture. Modern Ainu activists have focused on gaining recognition and representation in Japan. They won a major victory in 2008, when the Japanese government recognized their status as a separate, indigenous people. In 2012, the Ainu formed the Ainu Party of Japan, the first official ethnic minority party in Japanese history. As of 2019, new legislation has passed to both recognize their position as an indigenous people and strengthen their rights accordingly.
Further Reading:
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References
Batchelor, John. The Ainu and Their Folk-Lore. Religious Tract Society. 1901.
Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. Illness and Healing Among the Sakhalin Ainu. Cambridge Univeristy Press. 2014.
Siddle, Richard. Race, Resistance, and the Ainu of Japan. Routledge. 2012.
Sjoberg, Katarina. The Return of Ainu: Cultural Mobilization and the Practice of Ethnicity in Japan. Routledge. 2013.
“The Ainu People.” Ainu History and Culture, Ainu Museum, www.ainu-museum.or.jp/en/study/eng01.html.
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