History

The Berbers are indigenous herders found in North Africa. Their population exists in clusters from the Pacific in Morocco to the Siwa Oasis in Egypt, with a large concentration in the middle of the Sahara Desert straddling the borders of northern Niger Tunisia and Libya.

A map showing the distribution of different tribes of Berbers. [1] (Dark Blue) Tuareg, (Orange) Saharian Berbers (Sanhaja, Mozabite people, Siwis), (Green) Chaoui people, (Red) Kabyle people, (Light purple) Chenouas, (Yellow) Riffian people, (Purple) Zayanes (Middle-Atlas Mountains Berbers, also called Amazighs), (Light Blue) Shilha people. [2]

Berber is a large, nonhomogenous cultural group that encompasses most of the culture and history of northern Africa, with the unifying cultural force being a shared language and Berber heritage. The Berber language is believed to have spread out from the Nile Valley in Egypt around 2000 BCE as people moved to settle the land of Northern Africa. These are the people that the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans encountered when those cultures made first contact with the African coastline. The Carthaginians maintained a military presence in a region called Mauretania from around the 6th century to the 3rd century BCE before being absorbed by the Roman territory of Numidia in 203 BCE.[3] Numidian horsemanship and breeding influenced Roman cavalry tactics and development; and Numidian cavalry generals, like Maharbal under Hannibal, proved their tactical brilliance and mastery of horsemanship.[4]

After the fall of Rome, Berber rule continued until first contact with Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. The Islamic empire with its centralization and unity of religion helped to forge the Berbers into a single unified people and (eventually) a highly effective fighting force. In the 11th century, a coalition of Berber and other tribes called the Almoravids emerged and conquered Morocco in 1054, western Algeria in 1092, and established Marrakech, a grand capital city, in central Morocco in 1062.[5] Under the reign of ʿAli ibn Yūsuf, the Islamic Berbers eventually took control of all Muslim Spain except for Valencia, which remained independent under El Cid (Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar). While the Berber attempted to hold the Iberian Peninsula with Berber troops in Spain and Christian troops in Africa, their rule was short-lived. The fall of Saragossa in 1118 coupled with an Almohad revolt in the Atlas Mountains in western Morocco started a cascade of events that ended with Almohad invasion and sacking of Marrakech in 1147.[6]

The Moorish army of Almohad king Umar al-Murtada and Christian allies, readying for battle in the city of Marrakech. [7]

The caliph Abū Yaʿqūb Yūsuf assumed power and, in 1172, forced the last Almoravid holdout of Sevilla (Seville) to surrender in 1172.[8] His successor, Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb al-Manṣūr, attempted to deal with devastating rebellions on the eastern edge of his empire while simultaneously fighting to regain territory in Spain. Despite a decisive victory at Alarcos in 1195, the Berbers suffered a devastating defeat at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa by a Christian coalition from Leon, Castile, Navarre, and Aragon.[9] Retreating to northern Africa, the Almohads attempted to consolidate their territory against a new internal threat: the Marīnids. After a string of defeats, the Marīnids took Marrakech in 1269.[10]

The Islamization of the Berbers continued unabated. Eventually Arabic supplanted local dialects and writing, and Muslim warriors displaced Berbers from traditional grazing pastures into the mountains and deserts. During the French invasion of Algeria and Morocco, the French generals took advantage of the cultural split between Berbers and other Arab factions to sow dissent and internal division. After the end of French colonialism in 1962, Berbers attempted to reclaim their cultural identity. While they have struggled to gain political representation in Algeria, their language is studied at some universities and has been recognized as a national language in Algeria.[11]

Battles

The Fall of Saragossa (Zaragoza)

The Almoravid Empire captured Saragossa in 1110, driving out Christian forces. King of Aragorn, Alfonso VII, assumed control of all four Christian kingdoms in Spain by 1109. After the fall of Saragossa to the Muslim empire, political infighting and disputes over his claims to the other kingdoms prevented Alfonso from immediately counterattacking. In 1118, the Catholic political body, the Council of Toulous, declared a crusade against the Muslims in Spain, giving Alfonso the support he needed to engage. Alfonso and the Christians swept through Spain, smashing Muslim resistance until they reached Saragossa and laid siege to it. The city finally fell in December. It was a massive blow to Islam on the Iberian Peninsula.[12] Not only was Saragossa a strategically important city, but its fall also signaled the weakness of the Almoravid Empire and opened the way for the Almohads to take over.

A view of Basílica del Pilar - Río Ebro, Zaragoza. [13]

Victory at Alarcos

in 1195, Almohad caliph Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb formed an armistice with the European kings after defending the remaining Muslim holdings in Spain. At the end of the armistice, Alfonso VIII invaded the Berber city of Sevilla in southern Spain, prompting Abu led his armies north to retake Spain. While Alfonso was able to surprise and ambush the Muslim advance guard, he severely underestimated the strength of the Muslim forces, leading to a catastrophic defeat for the Europeans. The Muslims easily took Sevilla and pursued Alfonzo’s forces to the fortress of Alarcos where the Muslims wiped out the Europeans. Alfonso and his remaining army fled to Toledo, while Abu returned to Sevilla amid great fanfare and celebration.[14]

The victory helped to establish Muslim power in the area; but the Almohad did not press their advantage or exploit their victory, which allowed the European kings time to regroup and plan.[15]

The battle of Alarcos. [16]

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

Alfonso VIII was so traumatized by his crushing defeat that he was unable to organize a counterattack. The archbishop of Toledo, Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, took it upon himself to stir up religious outrage at such a decisive Muslim victory over Christians. Local garrisons began to travel to Toledo and Pope Innocent III declared a crusade for taking back Spain from the Muslims in 1212. Knights and other warriors flocked to Toledo and then the combined armies of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal marched to fight the Muslims.

Despite early victories, the non-Spanish soldiers were discouraged by the climate and returned home. Undaunted the crusade, leadership recruited Navarre and Alfonso’s forces to fill in the gaps. Almohad caliph Muḥammad al-Nāṣir, commander of the Almohad forces, attempted to cut off the Christians in the flat plains of Las Navas de Tolosa where their horses would be able to move more effectively. The Christians attempted to alter their route by using the high mountain passes of La Llosa. The passes were heavily guarded by Muslim forces, and the Christians would have been torn to shreds had a local shepherd not shown them an alternate route. Outflanked and ambushed, the Muslim forces suffered heavy losses and broke into a messy retreat before the Christian onslaught. Muslim control on the peninsula was greatly weakened through the combination of Christian forces scoring a string of victories across the peninsula and the collapse of the Almohad Empire due to internal division and a lack of a successful central ruler.[17]

Tactics

Numidian cavalry, the force of Berbers that were used by Hannibal during the Second Punic Wars, played a significant role in Hannibal’s army by scouting ahead of the main troops. Riders were so adept that they rode without saddles or bridles, using only a simple neck rope. This eliminated all excess weight and the absence of stirrups, bridles, saddles, and gear cut noise down to the horse itself. This gave scouts an enormous advantage in stealth and reconnaissance.[18] Their horses were so well trained the riders could lay them down flat in tall grass while they counted the enemies’ numbers, then stand up quickly to ride back to the main force.[19]

Here is a video demonstrating the skill and discipline of the Numidian cavalry.

The speed and skill of the Numidian riders, who often rode without armor, made them the perfect harassing force. They would follow behind an army, swoop in, throw their javelins, then retreat before an effective counterattack could be launched. While this tactic was rarely decisive, it could prove enormously effective at confusing and demoralizing the enemy, especially if the column was pursued and harassed for miles.[20]

Under Islamic rule, the Berbers were pressed into service as foot soldiers and commanders. According to Islamic chroniclers, the Berber contingent outnumbered the Islamic faction, leading to a majority Berber army during the conquest of Spain.[21] The Muslims used a combination of skillful peace treaties with shock and awe tactics. If the city they invaded surrendered, swore allegiance to the Muslim leader, and agreed to pay tribute, then the city’s rulers and resources would remain untouched. Often, the only difference to the commoners was to whom their money ultimately went and whether or not their religious practices, daily life, and political realities could continue undisturbed. In the event of conquest, the Muslims made a point of burning churches, executing persists and other religious leaders, and sacking cities for all they were worth. The goal was the create such a state of fear and panic that future cities would surrender rather than fight.[22]

A depiction of the star and crescent flag of early Islamic cavalry. [23]

Weapons

Since the Berber people spread across much of northern Africa, the weapons they used depended on what region they were in. This section focuses on the Tuareg—because they are one of the largest groups of Berbers, have the most information written about them, and were the undisputed masters of the Sahara before the invention of firearms.[24]

The Takoba is a straight, double-edged sword used by the Berber Tuaregs and tribes in the Sahel, a strip of Africa south of the Sahara but north of the Sudanian Savanna.[25] The crossguard is sometimes covered in leather or wood, and the swords are notable for their three fuller design.[26]

A man draws an ornamented Takoba. [27]

The telek was a short dagger that could be strapped to the nondominant forearm. Like the takoba, the crossguard was usually covered in leather or wood. The scabbard came in many variations; some had simple ties while others had richly-embroidered arm sheathes to denote status and wealth.[28]

Armed Tuareg men depicted in the French book A Narrative of Travels in North Africa in the years 1818, 1819, and 1820, accompanied by Geographical Notices of Soudan and of the Course of the Niger by George Francis Lyon 1821. Both men carry spears, and the telek dagger attached to the left forearm, the man on the right (a noble) is also armed with the takoba sword. [29]

Tuaregs in particular (and Berbers in general) used iron-tipped lances or short spears to fight, fend off wildlife, and protect their livestock.

The Tuaregs had a unique dual-wielding technique. A warrior used the spear or stick in the offhand while fighting with the sword in the dominant hand. The spear was used to deflect attacks and keep the opponent at bay while the sword was used to strike.[30]

Here is a video describing the spear and sword combination.[31]

The agher was a shield about four feet high and made of hide that could cover the entire body.[32] A shield combined with a sword and spear were the foundation of the Tuareg armaments. Warriors were trained to ride camels for long distances and fight at close quarters, so the shield proved invaluable for protection both in the saddle and on foot. The lightweight shield could be easily stowed during long desert treks while remaining easily accessible should the need arise.

Tuareg warriors had an impressive ability to change levels. Most similar one-handed combative systems, like European saber and Filipino eskrima, traded blows at targets of a certain height; but in training, Tuareg combat dropped to fighting on the knees or striking specifically at lower targets.[33] This allows the warrior exceptional flexibility because they could fight at many various levels and could subsequently target a wider range of openings. Additionally, training and fighting usually occurred in the sand, which was constantly shifting and required exceptional footwork for a warrior to fight effectively.

Fighting on sand combined with conditioning in the unrelenting heat of the Sahara made the Tuareg warriors exceptionally tough and formidable. Training usually began with sticks as substitutes for swords to show the students the basics of the fighting system. Once the stick and subsequently the sword was mastered, the shield would be incorporated into their training.[34]

Here is a wonderful video showing Tuaregs training in the desert.[35]

Armor

While practically no scholarly information exists on pre-Islamic Berber armor, and the cultural group is diffused across so many countries as to defy a uniform armor, standardization brought by the Islamic Empire likely would have led to at least the limited use of Islamic armor.

Islamic armor was generally lighter and it vented heat better than its heavier European counterparts, making it well adapted for fighting in a desert climate.[36] The armor usually consisted of a mail shirt with a breastplate made of overlapping scales of metal. A typical suit also included a distinctive conical helmet and protection for the arms and legs.

An example of an Islamic "turban style" helmet. [37]

An example of typical Ottoman infantry armor. [38]

Detail of how the metal plates are interwoven into the chainmail. [39]

This video looks at the individual pieces of armor and how they all assemble into one unit.[40]

Scaled armor was also developed for horses and offered additional protection from swords and arrows.

Another example of a full set of cavalry armor. [41]

Specialty: Horsemanship

The Berbers were some of the most skilled riders in Northern Africa. The horse breed of choice was the Barb horse, renowned and coveted for its prodigious stamina and hardiness. Interestingly, they display tölt and pace gaits, both of which make for a very smooth ride.[42] Mounted Berber fighters were very effective in their regions. The Numidian cavalry in Numidia helped shape the outcome of the Second Punic wars while the Tuareg riders used camels to achieve mastery over the Sahara.

This video shows the phenomenal control Tuareg riders have over their well-trained camel mounts.[43]

Works Cited

“Almohads | Berber Confederation.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Almohads.

“Almoravids | Berber Confederation.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Almoravids.

“Arabian-Berber Horse.” Accessed June 25, 2018. http://www.theequinest.com/breeds/arabian-berber/.

Armor, Author: Department of Arms and. “Islamic Arms and Armor | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art.” The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Accessed May 21, 2018. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isaa/hd_isaa.htm.

“Battle of Alarcos | European History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Alarcos.

“Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa | Spanish History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Las-Navas-de-Tolosa.

Benjamin Atkinson. Atkinson Action Horses - Hannibals Numidian Cavalry. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ygW50bx6eSs.

“Berber | People.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Berber.

Brandao, Paulo. Basílica Del Pilar - Río Ebro, Zaragoza. ( Spain, 2008 ). July 23, 2008. originally posted to Flickr as Basilica del Pilar, sunset. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basilica_del_Pilar-sunset.jpg.

Breastplate (Image 3 of 27). 16th-17th century. 24 x 39 in. (61.0 x 99.0 cm). Los Angeles County Museum of Art. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mail-and-plate_dizcek_(cuisse_or_knee_and_thigh_armor)5_LACMA_M.73.5.729a-j(3_of_27).jpg.

Da’Mon Stith. Sword of the Sahel Tuareg. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J5MBpoLXK6E.

Tuareg Sword and Spear Concept. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuJi2_3b5-g.

Explora English. The Customs of the Touaregs. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wOkRlEZXwfA.

Iranian. Turban Helmet with Eye Holes. between circa and circa 1500 (late Medieval 1450. Steel with silver inlay, 38.5 × 23.4 cm (15.1 × 9.2 in) (h. x diam.). Walters Art Museum. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman_or_Persian_-Turban_Helmet_with_Eye_Holes-_Walters_5170.jpg.

Lyon, George Francis. English: “Tuarick in a Shirt of Leather / Tuarick of Aghades” by Lyon. 1821. Lyon (1821):A Narrative of Travels in North Africa in the years 1818, 1819, and 1820, accompanied by Geographical Notices of Soudan and of the Course of the Niger. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tuarick_in_a_Shirt_of_Leather,_Tuarick_of_Aghades.jpg.

“Mauretania | Region, North Africa.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Mauretania-region-North-Africa.

“Numidia | Ancient Region, Africa.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Numidia.

PHGCOM. English: A Complete Suit of Ottoman Empire/Mamluk Armor as Worn by Fully Armored Cavalryman (Sipahi) Including Chichak (Helmet), Zirh Gomlak (Mail Shirt with Plates), Kolluk/Bazu Band (Vambrace/Arm Guards), Dizcek (Cuisse or Knee and Thigh Armor). This Display Has Kolçak (Greaves) Mistakenly Being Worn as Kolluk/Bazu Band (Vambrace/Arm Guards). Circa 1550, Photographed at Musee de l’Armee Located at the Invalides in Paris, France. Cropped and Edited to Show the Dizcek (Cuisse or Knee and Thigh Armor). 2012. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman_Mamluk_horseman_circa_1550.jpg. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman-mamluke_armored_cavalryman.jpg.

Razmafzar. Razmafzar Persian Armor from the Safavid Period. Accessed May 21, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nv6tqQe-O2M.

Rey, Sola. “Numidians In Ancient Times.” Sola Rey (blog), February 21, 2017. http://solarey.net/numidians-ancient-times/.

Robot, Rosso. Deutsch: Verbreitung Der Berber Im Westlichen Nordafrika. June 2, 2014. Own work, using base map by Eric Gaba (Sting - fr:Sting) model by Ayadho overview map by TUBS This map is the result from a map request to the Kartenwünsche in the Kartenwerkstatt. You can make a request for a new map to us as well. Deutsch | English | македонски | +/−. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Distributions_of_Berber_people-map.png.

“Sahel | Region, Africa.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Sahel.

Samata. Français : Le Jeune de La Culture Malienne Samata Cissé. August 13, 2011. Own work. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Samata_t%C3%A9nue_touareg.jpg.

“Spain - The Almoravids.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain.

src="https://dc.ads.linkedin.com/collect/?pid=277002, _linkedin_data_partner_id = “277002”;{var s = document getElementsByTagName; var b = document createElement; b type = “text/javascript”;b async = true; b src = “https://snap licdn com/li lms-analytics/insight min js”; s parentNode insertBefore;})(); . “Shock and Awe, Eighth-Century Style:[Br] The Muslim Conquest of Spain.” Intercollegiate Studies Institute: Educating for Liberty, March 2, 2016. https://home.isi.org/shock-and-awe-eighth-century-stylebr-muslim-conquest-spain.

“The Tuareg | Swords and Knives | David Atkinson.” Accessed June 25, 2018. http://atkinson-swords.com/peoples/the-tuareg.html.

“The Tuareg: Nomads of the Sahara | Peabody Museum.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.peabody.harvard.edu/node/2248.

Tindle, James. “Iberian Uniqueness in the Arab Invasion of Spain,” n.d., 16.

Unknown. English: The Moorish Army of Almohad King Umar Al-Murtada and Christian Allies, Readying for Battle in the City of Marrakech. April 11, 2013. Cantigas de Santa Maria. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Army_almohad.jpg.

The Battle of Wadi Al-Khazandar (Battle of Homs) of 1299 (14th-Century Miniature) This Is an Early Depiction of a “Star and Crescent” Flag. It Is Important to Note That Various Combinations of Stars and Crescents Are Shown in This Manuscripts, and They Are Not Consistently Attributed to a Particular Faction (e.g. the Crusaders Have a Crescent Flag on Fol. 19v and a Star Flag on Fol. 9v, and the Mongols Have a Star and Crescent on Fol. 22rv -- a Secondary Source Is Needed for a Coherent Discussion). between circa and circa 1325 (early century 1300. BNF Nouvelle acquisition française 886, fol. 31v[1]. This image is a scan of reproduction published in Claude Mutafian, Le royaume arménien de Cilicie, XIIe ‑ XIVe siècle, Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1993 (ISBN 978-2271051059) (page needed). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BattleOfHoms1299.JPG.

“Welcome to He-Artefakte, Africa, Ethnology, Tuareg Arms and -Knifes.” Accessed June 25, 2018. http://www.he-artefakte.de/Afrika/Ethnologie/Tuaregwaffen/TuaregwaffenE.html.

“Who Are the Tuareg? | Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a Modern World.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://africa.si.edu/exhibits/tuareg/who.html.

Worthington, Daryl. “Alfonso the Battler and Muslim Spain.” New Historian (blog), December 17, 2014. https://www.newhistorian.com/alfonso-battler-muslim-spain/2447/.

X, Under the patronage of Alfonso. English: Cantiga 181. The Battle of Marrakesh from the En:Cantigas de Santa Maria. 13th century. http://warfare.gq/Cantiga/Cantigas_de_Santa_Maria-181.htm. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reconquista4.jpg.

Zirh Gomlak (Zirah Baktar-Bagtar) a Mail and Plate Shirt (Image 12 of 27). 16th-17th century. 24 x 39 in. (61.0 x 99.0 cm). Los Angeles County Museum of Art. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zirh_gomlak_(zirah_baktar-bagtar)a_mail_and_plate_shirt_LACMA_M.73.5.729a-j(12_of_27).jpg.

1. Robot, Deutsch.

2. Robot.

3. “Mauretania | Region, North Africa.”

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7. Unknown, English.

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10. “Almohads | Berber Confederation.”

11. “Berber | People.”

12. Worthington, “Alfonso the Battler and Muslim Spain.”

13. Brandao, Basílica Del Pilar - Río Ebro, Zaragoza. ( Spain, 2008 ).

14. “Battle of Alarcos | European History.”

15. “Spain - The Almoravids.”

16. X, English.

17. “Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa | Spanish History.”

18. Benjamin Atkinson, Atkinson Action Horses - Hannibals Numidian Cavalry.

19. Benjamin Atkinson.

20. Rey, “Numidians In Ancient Times.”

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22. src="https://dc.ads.linkedin.com/collect/?pid=277002 and Fmt=gif" />, “Shock and Awe, Eighth-Century Style.”

23. Unknown, The Battle of Wadi Al-Khazandar (Battle of Homs) of 1299 (14th-Century Miniature) This Is an Early Depiction of a “Star and Crescent” Flag. It Is Important to Note That Various Combinations of Stars and Crescents Are Shown in This Manuscripts, and They Are Not Consistently Attributed to a Particular Faction (e.g. the Crusaders Have a Crescent Flag on Fol. 19v and a Star Flag on Fol. 9v, and the Mongols Have a Star and Crescent on Fol. 22rv -- a Secondary Source Is Needed for a Coherent Discussion). ↑

24. “Who Are the Tuareg? | Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a Modern World.”

25. “Sahel | Region, Africa.”

26. “The Tuareg | Swords and Knives | David Atkinson.”

27. Samata, Français.

28. “Welcome to He-Artefakte, Africa, Ethnology, Tuareg Arms and -Knifes.”

29. Lyon, English.

30. Da’Mon Stith, Tuareg Sword and Spear Concept.

31. Da’Mon Stith.

32. “The Tuareg: Nomads of the Sahara | Peabody Museum.”

33. Da’Mon Stith, Sword of the Sahel Tuareg.

34. Da’Mon Stith.

35. Da’Mon Stith.

36. Armor, “Islamic Arms and Armor | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art.”

37. Iranian, Turban Helmet with Eye Holes.

38. Zirh Gomlak (Zirah Baktar-Bagtar) a Mail and Plate Shirt (Image 12 of 27).

39. Breastplate (Image 3 of 27).

40. Razmafzar, Razmafzar Persian Armor from the Safavid Period.

41. PHGCOM, English.

42. “Arabian-Berber Horse.”

43. Explora English, The Customs of the Touaregs.

Nicholas Allen

Swordsquatch Exhibition

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